Abstract
Background: The role of open-flame and/or high-temperature cooking (grilling/barbequing, broiling, or roasting) and doneness preferences (rare, medium, or well-done) in the association between meat consumption and risk of hypertension remains unknown. This study aimed to examine cooking methods for meats (red meats, chicken, or fish) in relation to hypertension risk among men and women who consumed meat regularly (≥2 servings/week). Methods: Study population consisted of 32,925 women from the Nurses’ Health Study (NHS 1996-2012), 53,852 women from the NHSII (2001-2013), and 17,104 men from the Health Professionals Follow-Up Study (HPFS 1996- 2012), who were free of hypertension, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer at baseline. Results: We documented 37,123 incident hypertension cases during 1.06 million person-years of follow-up. After multivariate adjustments of covariates including total consumption of red meats, chicken, and fish, a higher frequency of open-flame and/or high-temperature cooking and a preference for higher meat doneness level were both independently associated with an increased hypertension risk. When comparing open-flame and/or high- temperature cooking >15 times/month with <4 times/month, the pooled hazard ratio (HR) and 95% confidence interval (CI) of hypertension was 1.17 (1.12, 1.21; P trend <0.001). When comparing the extreme quartiles of meat doneness level score, the pooled HR (95% CI) of hypertension was 1.15 (1.12, 1.19; P trend <0.001). The associations persisted when data were analyzed by individual meat groups: comparing extreme groups, for red meats, the pooled HR (95% CI) of hypertension was 1.18 (1.13, 1.23; P trend <0.001) for open-flame and/or high- temperature cooking and 1.15 (1.12, 1.19; P trend <0.001) for high meat doneness level; for white meats (chicken and fish), the pooled HR (95% CI) of hypertension was 1.12 (1.08, 1.16; P trend <0.001) for open-flame and/or high- temperature cooking and 1.10 (1.07, 1.14; P trend <0.001) for high meat doneness level. Moreover, levels of estimated intake of heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs) were also independently associated with an increased risk of hypertension. Comparing extreme quintiles of HAAs, the pooled HR (95% CI) of hypertension was 1.16 (1.13, 1.21; P trend <0.001). These associations were attenuated but remained significant when further adjusting for baseline body mass index. Conclusions: Our results suggest that, independent of the amount of meat consumption, open-flame and/or high- temperature cooking and high doneness level for both red meats and white meats are associated with an increased risk of hypertension.
Generated Summary
This study, published in Circulation, investigates the relationship between meat cooking methods and the risk of hypertension. It is a prospective cohort study that examined data from three separate studies: the Nurses’ Health Study (NHS), the NHSII, and the Health Professionals Follow-Up Study (HPFS). The research aimed to determine whether the way meat is cooked (e.g., grilling, broiling) and the degree to which it is cooked (e.g., rare, medium, well-done) are associated with the risk of developing hypertension. The study involved a large cohort of participants, both men and women, who were followed over time to assess the development of hypertension in relation to their meat consumption habits and cooking preferences. The study aimed to examine cooking methods for meats (red meats, chicken, or fish) in relation to hypertension risk among men and women who consumed meat regularly (≥2 servings/week).
Key Findings & Statistics
The study documented a substantial number of hypertension cases during the follow-up period.
- Incident Hypertension Cases: 37,123 cases documented over 1.06 million person-years of follow-up.
- Open-Flame/High-Temperature Cooking: Compared to those who cooked meat less frequently, those who grilled/barbecued/broiled more than 15 times per month had a higher risk of hypertension (HR = 1.17, 95% CI: 1.12, 1.21; P trend <0.001).
- Meat Doneness: Those who preferred their meat well-done had a higher risk of hypertension (HR = 1.15, 95% CI: 1.12, 1.19; P trend <0.001).
- Red Meats: Open-flame/high-temperature cooking of red meats was associated with an increased risk of hypertension (HR = 1.18, 95% CI: 1.13, 1.23; P trend <0.001). High meat doneness level for red meats was also associated with increased hypertension risk (HR = 1.15, 95% CI: 1.12, 1.19; P trend <0.001).
- White Meats: Open-flame/high-temperature cooking of white meats was associated with an increased risk of hypertension (HR = 1.12, 95% CI: 1.08, 1.16; P trend <0.001). High meat doneness level for white meats was associated with increased hypertension risk (HR = 1.10, 95% CI: 1.07, 1.14; P trend <0.001).
- Heterocyclic Aromatic Amines (HAAs): Levels of estimated intake of HAAs were also independently associated with an increased risk of hypertension (HR = 1.16, 95% CI: 1.13, 1.21; P trend <0.001).
Other Important Findings
- The study found that both the frequency of open-flame and/or high-temperature cooking and a preference for higher meat doneness levels were independently associated with an increased risk of hypertension.
- These associations remained significant even after adjusting for the total consumption of red meats, chicken, and fish.
- The associations persisted when data were analyzed by individual meat groups.
- The study also found that levels of estimated intake of heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs) were independently associated with an increased risk of hypertension.
Limitations Noted in the Document
The document does not explicitly mention any limitations of the study. However, it is important to note that this is an observational study, which means it can show associations but cannot prove cause and effect. Further, the study relies on self-reported data on meat consumption, cooking methods, and doneness preferences, which may be subject to recall bias or misclassification. The study also only included men and women from specific health studies, so the results may not be generalizable to other populations. It is also important to note that the study does not account for other dietary factors that may be contributing factors to hypertension.
Conclusion
The findings of this study suggest a link between how meat is cooked and the risk of developing hypertension. The research indicates that open-flame and/or high-temperature cooking methods, as well as a preference for well-done meat, are independently associated with an increased risk of hypertension. It is important to note that these conclusions are drawn after adjusting for the amount of meat consumption, suggesting that the cooking method itself may play a role, independently of the quantity of meat eaten. Furthermore, the study points out the link between the levels of estimated intake of heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs) and the increased risk of hypertension, suggesting that the formation of these compounds during high-temperature cooking may have adverse health effects. This research underscores the complexity of diet and health, highlighting that it is not just what we eat, but also how we prepare it, that could influence our health outcomes. The study supports the growing body of evidence suggesting that dietary choices can have a significant impact on cardiovascular health and that adopting healthier cooking practices could be beneficial in the prevention of hypertension.